Introduction to Anglo-Norman Literature
c. 1066–c. 1350: The French-speaking Court in England
1. Historical and Linguistic Context
The political and social shift that created a new trilingual culture in England.
The Norman Conquest (1066)
The single most important event for this period was the Battle of Hastings, where William, Duke of Normandy, defeated King Harold Godwinson. This victory established a new French-speaking ruling class—aristocracy, church leaders, and administrators—who replaced the Anglo-Saxon nobility. This created a sharp linguistic and cultural divide. The new elite spoke Norman French and used Latin for official church and state records, while the general population continued to speak Old English (which gradually evolved into Middle English).
The Trilingual Culture (c. 1066-1350)
For nearly 300 years, England operated in a trilingual environment with a clear functional distribution. This led to frequent translation and adaptation between the three languages, fueling a cross-pollination of themes and forms.
| Language | Primary Use & Domain |
|---|---|
| Latin | The universal language of the Church, theology, scholarship, diplomacy, and official records. |
| Anglo-Norman (French) | The language of the royal court, law, administration, and aristocratic culture. The vernacular of power. |
| Middle English | The language of the common people. Remained primarily spoken but began its literary resurgence c. 1200. |
2. Themes, Motifs, and Aesthetics
The core concerns of a literature defined by aristocratic patronage and a new administrative class.
Legitimacy and Lineage
A primary concern, especially in chronicles, was proving the right of the Normans to rule England. This involved creating genealogies and linking new rulers to ancient, often mythical, pasts (like Brutus of Troy).
Courtly Ethos & Chivalry
Literature, especially romance, served to define and promote the new aristocratic code. This included ideals of knightly honor, largesse (generosity), loyalty, and refined manners (courtoisie).
Courtly Love
A central theme of romance and the lai, this often involved an idealized, secret, and sometimes adulterous love, in which a knight performs great deeds in service to his lady. It explores the complex inner life of desire and duty.
Celtic Influence and the Supernatural
Anglo-Norman writers, particularly Marie de France, drew heavily from the Breton and Welsh traditions. This introduced a rich vein of marvels into English literature, including fairies, werewolves, magic, and enchanted landscapes.
Gender and Power
With a prominent female author (Marie de France) and powerful female patrons (like Eleanor of Aquitaine), this literature often explores female perspectives, agency, and the negotiation of desire and reputation in a courtly world.
Law and Order
Reflecting the concerns of an administrative class, themes of justice, procedure, fidelity to oaths, and the conflict between custom and written law are common throughout the literature.
3. Language & Major Genres
The development of the Anglo-Norman language and the new literary forms it introduced.
The Anglo-Norman Language
The language itself was a northern Old French dialect that, once established in England, began its own “insular” development. Its most significant legacy is its massive contribution to the English lexicon. Thousands of French words related to government (parliament, council, majesty), law (judge, jury, felony, evidence), culture (romance, poetry, music), and food (beef, pork, poultry) were absorbed into English, creating the hybrid language we speak today.
Poetic Forms
Anglo-Norman literature moved away from the alliterative, heroic traditions of Old English. It established rhyming couplets, especially the octosyllabic couplet (lines of eight syllables), as a standard poetic form. This form would later be perfected by writers like Geoffrey Chaucer.
Major Genres & Forms
Romance: The period’s most significant contribution. Long narrative poems celebrating chivalric adventures, knightly quests, and courtly love.
Lai: A short, rhymed narrative poem, typically focusing on a single episode of love, adventure, or the supernatural (famously written by Marie de France).
Chronicle: Verse or prose histories often commissioned to legitimize Norman rule and trace Britain’s mythical origins (the “Brut Tradition”).
Hagiography (Saints’ Lives): Extremely popular texts providing models of piety and promoting local saints’ cults.
Chanson de Geste: “Song of Heroic Deeds.” Epic poems (like The Song of Roland) focusing on warfare and loyalty to one’s lord.
Didactic and Religious Writing: A broad category including moral instruction, conduct literature, bestiaries (allegorical animal stories), and sermons.
Law and Institutional Texts: A vast amount of practical prose, including custumals (customary law) and procedural guides, cementing French in the legal system.
A 13th-century manuscript detail depicting the tragic death of Tristan, a central romance of the Anglo-Norman period.
4. Key Authors & Works
While many works from this period are anonymous, several key figures and texts are central to its study.
Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100–c. 1155)
Though he wrote in Latin, Geoffrey’s Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain, c. 1136) is arguably the most important source text of the era. It popularized the legend of King Arthur, transforming him from a minor Welsh figure into a grand chivalric king and introducing figures like Merlin and Guinevere to a wide audience.
Wace (c. 1110–c. 1180)
A Norman poet who wrote for the court of Henry II. His major work, Roman de Brut (c. 1155), is an Anglo-Norman verse adaptation of Geoffrey’s Historia. It was this version that spread the Arthurian legends throughout the French-speaking world and is the first known work to mention King Arthur’s Round Table (la Table Ronde).
Marie de France (fl. 1160–1215)
The earliest known French woman poet, Marie likely wrote in England. Her most famous works are her Lais, a collection of twelve masterful short narrative poems. Drawing on Celtic motifs, they explore complex themes of courtly love, desire, and the supernatural. Notable lais include Lanval (about a knight’s fairy mistress) and Bisclavret (a werewolf story).
Benoît de Sainte-Maure (fl. c. 1160)
His Roman de Troie (Romance of Troy) was a long verse romance that retold the Trojan War, blending classical matter with medieval courtly values. It was a major source for later medieval writers, including Chaucer.
Thomas of Britain (fl. c. 1170s)
An Anglo-Norman poet whose version of the Tristan legend survives in fragments. It is a key work in the “courtly” branch of the Tristan and Iseult story, focusing on the tragic and psychological aspects of their forbidden love.
5. Legacy and Influence on English Literature
How this period acted as a vital catalyst for the future of English literature.
The Anglo-Norman period was not a literary dead end but a vital catalyst that directly shaped the future of English literature. Its most profound impact was linguistic: the English language was irrevocably altered, absorbing thousands of French words for law, government, art, and high culture.
This period was also responsible for crucial genre transmission. It introduced the romance and the lai to England, which became dominant forms in Middle English, leading directly to works like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur.
It also provided the foundational source material for centuries of English writing by popularizing the “Matter of Britain” (the Arthurian legends). Furthermore, it established new poetic forms, most notably the rhyming couplet, which would be mastered by Geoffrey Chaucer.
Finally, the era left a unique institutional legacy. The use of French in legal contexts persisted for hundreds of years, becoming “Law French,” a specialized technical language whose terms (e.g., attorney, plaintiff, voir dire) are still used in common law today.
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Norman Conquest (1066)
Establishes a new French-speaking aristocracy and administrative class.
A Trilingual Culture Emerges
Latin (Church/State), Anglo-Norman (Court/Law), Middle English (Commoners).
New Genres and Themes
New forms like Romance, Lai, and Chronicles introduce themes of chivalry, courtly love, and Celtic magic.
Foundational Authors
Geoffrey of Monmouth (in Latin) and Wace popularize King Arthur. Marie de France perfects the lai.
Linguistic & Cultural Legacy
Massive infusion of French vocabulary into English. Establishes rhyming couplets as a new poetic standard.
OUTCOME: Bridge to Middle English
Anglo-Norman literature provides the genres (Romance) and source material (Arthuriana) for later English masters like Chaucer and Malory.
