Author, Date, and Dialect: Written by a canon named Orm (or Ormin) around c. 1175–1200 in the East Midlands.

Form and Content: A monumental, though unfinished, collection of over 19,000 lines of verse homilies (sermons) in a rigid 15-syllable iambic line (septenary). The content is a systematic paraphrase and exegesis of the Gospel readings for the church year.

Literary Significance: This work’s importance is not in its poetic flourish—the style is deliberately plain and repetitive—but in its revolutionary linguistic self-consciousness. Orm was obsessed with doctrinal purity and believed correct pronunciation was essential for conveying the correct theological meaning.

Orthographic System: He invented his own unique and perfectly consistent phonetic spelling system. His most famous innovation was doubling consonants after short vowels (e.g., Godd, sunne) to “lock in” the sound for the reader. The surviving manuscript (Bodleian MS Junius 1) is an autograph (written by Orm himself), making it a priceless artifact.

Author, Date, and Dialect: Anonymous, c. 1300, in a Northern dialect.

Form and Content: A colossal religious epic of nearly 30,000 lines in octosyllabic couplets. It functions as a “vernacular encyclopedia” of Christian history, retelling the entire story of the world from Creation to the Last Judgment.

Literary Significance: This work is a direct response to the popularity of secular romance. The prologue explicitly states the author’s intent: to provide an edifying, comprehensive, and equally entertaining alternative to the “frivolous” romances about Alexander, Arthur, or Charlemagne. It demonstrates the growing ambition to use English for large-scale, encyclopedic projects.

Author, Date, and Dialect: Anonymous, c. 1200–1230, in the West Midlands.

Form and Content: A prose guide written for three young noblewomen who became anchoresses (religious recluses). It is a masterpiece of stylistic control and psychological insight, divided into an “Outer Rule” (practical advice) and an “Inner Rule” (governing the soul).

Literary Significance: The prose is elegant, rhythmic, and rich with metaphors. Its most celebrated passage is the allegory of Christ as a Chivalric Knight-Lover. In this, Christ is a noble knight who jousts in a tournament (the Crucifixion) to win the love of his seemingly indifferent lady (the human soul). This use of romantic imagery to explain theology is a hallmark of the period’s affective piety (emotional, personal devotion).

Author, Date, and Dialect: Anonymous, early 13th century, West Midlands.

Form and Content: A collection of prose hagiographies (Seinte Katerine, Seinte Margarete, Seinte Iuliene) and a treatise, Hali Meiðhad (“Holy Maidenhood”).

Literary Significance: These are energetic, rhetorical hagiographic romances. The female saints are portrayed as articulate, educated, and aristocratic “warriors of Christ” who intellectually and theologically dismantle their male pagan tormentors. The prose is ornate and alliterative, demonstrating a high-art style in service of female sanctity.

Author, Date, and Dialect: Anonymous, early 13th century, West Midlands.

Form and Content: A collection of intimate, passionate devotional meditations, such as Wohunge of ure Lauerd (“Wooing of Our Lord”).

Literary Significance: This group represents the full flowering of “bridal mysticism” in English. The texts explicitly and passionately borrow the language of secular courtly love (longing, desire, the beloved as a “knight”) and apply it to Christ. This established a powerful vocabulary for personal, mystical devotion.

Author, Date, and Dialect: Anonymous, c. 1180–1220, in a Southern dialect.

Form and Content: The first great debate poem (débat) in English, written in over 1,700 agile octosyllabic couplets (a French form). The poem is a witty, formal, and legally sharp argument between two birds:

• The Owl represents the old, serious, didactic, and monastic life.
• The Nightingale champions the new, joyous, aesthetic, and courtly life of love and song.

Literary Significance: This is a masterpiece of metapoetics—a poem about the very purpose and function of poetry itself. It satirizes legal proceedings and clerical arguments. Its playful, sophisticated, and self-aware tone demonstrates a new level of intellectual confidence in the vernacular.

Author, Date, and Dialect: Layamon, a priest, c. 1190–1215, West Midlands.

Form and Content: The first major Arthurian epic in the English language. It is a massive (16,000+ line) translation and expansion of Wace’s French Roman de Brut. Layamon’s crucial innovation was his choice of form: a powerful, driving alliterative long line. This was a conscious revival of the Old English heroic style of *Beowulf*.

Literary Significance: This is a monumental work of cultural synthesis and nationalism. Layamon takes a French/Latin story and re-forges it in a native English epic style. His Arthur is not a polished French knight but a grim, ferocious, and epic warrior. Layamon also adds key details to the legend, including the origins of the Round Table and the role of elves at Arthur’s birth.

Author, Date, and Dialect: Anonymous, c. 1225, Southern/East Midlands.

Form and Content: One of the earliest surviving English romances, written in short, simple rhyming couplets. It is a fast-paced exile-and-return narrative. Prince Horn is exiled by Saracen (pagan) invaders, proves his valor, and returns to reclaim his kingdom and his love.

Literary Significance: *King Horn* sets the template for the “Matter of England.” It replaces the complex, often adulterous fin’amor (courtly love) of French romance with themes of loyalty, action, and Christian identity. The conflict is a clear-cut battle of good (Christian) vs. evil (pagan).

Author, Date, and Dialect: Anonymous, c. 1280–1300, East Midlands.

Form and Content: A mature “Matter of England” romance. The dispossessed Danish prince Havelok is raised by a humble fisherman, Grim (the mythical founder of Grimsby). His royal identity is revealed by a miraculous flame from his mouth.

Literary Significance: This romance is notable for its civic and mercantile ethos. Its world is not one of remote castles, but of recognizable English towns (Grimsby, Lincoln). The hero’s virtues are pragmatic (strength, fairness) and his triumph is tied to communal justice and the prosperity of the people. It appealed to a rising middle class.