Classic Indian Literary Criticism
Emphasizing key texts, schools of thought, and core concepts suitable for MCQ-based examinations.
Contents
I. Foundations and Context
Origins and Evolution
Indian Literary Criticism (Poetics, known as Kavya Shastra or Sahitya Shastra) is not merely a technical manual for writing but a philosophical inquiry into the nature of beauty and aesthetic experience. It evolved over thousands of years, drawing influence largely from Sanskrit literature and classical aesthetics.
The roots of this tradition are Vedic. The Vedas (1500 BCE–500 BCE) contain the seeds of poetic theory, particularly in the concept of Vak (Speech) as a divine force. Explicit literary theory traces back to the fourth century BCE (Sutra period), evolving from grammar (Vyakarana) and dramaturgy (Natya).
| Key Aspect | Details & Context |
|---|---|
| The Four Purusharthas (Objectives of Life) |
Literature was not art for art’s sake; it was subservient to the four goals of human existence:
|
| Kavya Prayojana (Purpose of Poetry) |
According to Mammata (in Kavya-prakasha), poetry serves six purposes:
|
| Kavya Hetu (Sources of Poetry) |
What makes a poet? Three causes are cited:
|
| Language & The Court | Sanskrit was the language of the learned (Brahmins) and the court (Sabha). In drama, a strict linguistic hierarchy existed: Kings and Brahmins spoke Sanskrit, while women, children, and lower-caste characters spoke various dialects of Prakrit. |
II. Core Concepts and Schools of Thought
While Sanskrit criticism is often treated as a monolith, it developed through six distinct schools of thought (Sampradayas). Each school emphasized a different element as the “Soul” (Atman) of poetry.
| School | Founder (Time) | Key Text | Concept (The “Soul”) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Rasa | Bharata Muni (2nd C. BCE) |
Natyashastra | Rasa (Aesthetic Flavor). The emotional experience is the soul of drama/poetry. |
| 2. Alankara | Bhamaha (7th C.) |
Kavyalankara | Alankara (Ornamentation). Figures of speech make language poetic. (“Sabdarthau Sahitau Kavyam”). |
| 3. Riti | Vamana (8th C.) |
Kavyalankara Sutra | Riti (Style/Diction). Defined as specific arrangement of words (Visista padarachana). |
| 4. Dhvani | Anandavardhana (9th C.) |
Dhvanyaloka | Dhvani (Suggestion). The implied meaning (Vyangya) is the soul (Kavyasyatma Dhvanih). |
| 5. Vakrokti | Kuntaka (10th/11th C.) |
Vakroktijivita | Vakrokti (Obliqueness). Artful deviation from ordinary speech is the life of poetry. |
| 6. Auchitya | Kshemendra (11th C.) |
Aucitya-vicara-carca | Auchitya (Propriety). The harmony and appropriateness of all elements to the Sentiment (Rasa). |
A. Rasa Theory (Aesthetic Experience)
Definition: Rasa (aesthetic flavor/taste) is the most significant contribution of ancient Indian criticism. It is not the raw emotion (Bhava) itself, but the aesthetic experience of that emotion, generalized and enjoyed by the reader. It is often described as Brahmanandasahodara (akin to the bliss of realizing the Absolute).
The Rasa Sutra (Formula)
Rasa results from the harmonious fusion of three elements in Drama:
“vibhavanubhava-vyabhicharibhava-samyogad rasanishpattih”
- 1 Vibhavas (Determinants): The causes/conditions. Divided into Alambana (the person/object, e.g., Juliet for Romeo) and Uddipana (the setting, e.g., moonlight).
- 2 Anubhavas (Consequents): The physical manifestations of emotion (e.g., tears, smile, trembling).
- 3 Vyabhichari bhavas (Transitory States): The 33 fleeting emotions (e.g., envy, anxiety) that feed the dominant emotion.
Key Concepts in Rasa
- Sthayibhava: The permanent, latent emotion lying deep in the human psyche (e.g., Rati/Love). It is Sthayibhava that is transformed into Rasa.
- Sadharanikarana (Generalization): The process by which the reader loses their personal ego and the character’s emotion becomes universal. My grief becomes Universal Grief.
- Rasabhasa: The improper or false manifestation of Rasa (e.g., love directed at a guru or sage, or one-sided love).
Theories of Realization (Rasanishpatti)
- Bhatta Lollata: Utpattivada (Generation). Rasa is in the original character.
- Sri Sankuka: Anumitivada (Inference). Rasa is inferred by the spectator.
- Bhatta Nayaka: Bhuktivada (Enjoyment). Rasa is enjoyed through Sadharanikarana.
- Abhinavagupta: Abhivyakti (Manifestation). Rasa is suggested/manifested (accepted view).
The Nine Classical Rasas (Navarasa)
| Rasa (Flavor) | Sthayibhava (Emotion) | Color (Varna) | Deity (Devata) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Shringara (Love) | Rati (Love) | Green (Shyam) | Vishnu |
| 2. Hasya (Laughter) | Hasya (Mirth) | White | Pramatha |
| 3. Karuna (Sorrow) | Shoka (Grief) | Grey/Dove | Yama |
| 4. Raudra (Anger) | Krodh (Wrath) | Red | Rudra |
| 5. Veera (Heroism) | Utsah (Energy) | Gold/Yellow | Mahendra (Indra) |
| 6. Bhayanaka (Fear) | Bhaya (Terror) | Black | Kala (Yama) |
| 7. Bibhatsa (Disgust) | Jugupsa (Disgust) | Blue | Mahakala |
| 8. Adbhuta (Wonder) | Vismay (Astonishment) | Yellow | Brahma |
| 9. Shanta (Peace)* | Sham (Serenity) | Jasmine/Moon White | Narayana / Buddha |
* Shanta Rasa Dispute: Bharata discussed only 8 Rasas. Udbhata is credited with adding Shanta Rasa. Some critics argue it cannot be portrayed on stage as it implies a cessation of action.
B. Dhvani Theory (Suggestion)
Core Concept: Dhvani (suggestion/reverberation) is declared the “Soul of Poetry” (Kavyasyatma Dhvanih). It posits that the highest form of poetry is that where the implied meaning (Vyangya-artha) overrides the literal meaning (Vachya-artha).
Shabda Shakti (The Three Powers of the Word)
To understand Dhvani, one must distinguish between the three levels of meaning generated by a word:
Example: “The sun has set” = It is evening.
Example: “A house on the Ganges” = A house on the bank (not water).
Example: “The sun has set” suggests to a lover: “It is time to meet”; to a thief: “Time to rob”; to a priest: “Time for prayer.”
Theoretical Basis: Sphota
Dhvani draws from Bhartrhari’s Sphotavada. Sphota is the eternal, indivisible “burst” of meaning in the mind, which is revealed by the temporal sounds (Nada) of words.
The Rasadhvani Synthesis
Abhinavagupta (in Locana) solidified the theory. He argued that Rasa cannot be spoken directly; it can only be suggested. Thus, the highest Dhvani is Rasa-dhvani.
Anandavardhana’s Classification of Poetry
Based on the presence and dominance of Dhvani, poetry is graded into three classes:
-
1. Dhvani Kavya (Uttama): The Best Poetry.
The suggested meaning (Vyangya) is predominant and more beautiful than the literal.
-
2. Gunibhuta-vyangya (Madhyama): Mediocre Poetry.
Suggestion exists but is subordinate/secondary to the literal sense or ornamentation.
-
3. Chitra Kavya (Adhama): Inferior/Pictorial Poetry.
Devoid of suggestion. Relies entirely on figures of speech (Alankara) and wordplay. Anandavardhana barely considers this poetry.
- Vastu-dhvani: Suggestion of a rare fact/idea.
- Alankara-dhvani: Suggestion of a figure of speech.
- Rasa-dhvani: Suggestion of an emotion/sentiment (The supreme goal).
C. Alankara Theory (Figures of Speech)
Bhamaha (7th century)
Kavyalankara (Bhamaha), Kavyadarsa (Dandin)
Core Concept: Alankara (Ornament) posits that beauty in poetry arises from the artistic arrangement of words and meanings. Bhamaha defined poetry as “Sabdarthau Sahitau Kavyam” (Word and Meaning united together is Poetry).
Classification of Alankaras
These rely on the specific words used. If a word is replaced by a synonym, the alankara disappears.
- Anuprasa (Alliteration): Repetition of phonemes/consonants.
- Yamaka (Chime): Repetition of words/syllables with different meanings.
- Slesha (Paronomasia): Double entendre or pun. One word carrying two meanings.
- Vakrokti (Equivoque): A statement interpreted differently by the listener (often intentional sarcasm).
These rely on the meaning. Even if words are changed, the figure remains.
- Upama (Simile): Explicit comparison using particles like ‘iva’ (like/as).
- Rupaka (Metaphor): Superimposition of the object (Upamana) onto the subject (Upameya).
- Utpreksha (Fancy): Imagining the subject as if it were the object (“Her face is as if it were the moon”).
- Atishayokti (Hyperbole): Exaggeration where the subject is swallowed by the object.
- Vibhavana: Effect without a cause (e.g., “He is drunk without wine”).
The Alankara School (Bhamaha/Dandin) viewed figures of speech as the Body (Deha) of poetry, arguing that poetry cannot exist without them.
Later Critique: Anandavardhana (Dhvani School) argued that Alankaras are merely external ornaments (like jewelry on a woman). If the “Soul” (Rasa/Dhvani) is missing, ornaments are useless on a dead body.
Vamana distinguished the two:
- Gunas (e.g., Sweetness, Clarity) are intrinsic qualities (like bravery in a man).
- Alankaras are extrinsic additions (like a bracelet on a man).
D. Riti Theory (Style/Diction)
Core Concept: Vamana boldly declared “Ritir atma kavyasya” (Style is the soul of poetry). He defined Riti as Visista padarachana (a special arrangement of words).
The Three Ritis (Styles)
- 1. Vaidarbhi: The ideal style. Contains all Gunas. Free from compounds, sweet, and clear. (Preferred by Kalidasa).
- 2. Gaudi: Vigorous style. Characterized by long compounds and the quality of Ojas (Strength).
- 3. Panchali: Soft/Sweet style. Characterized by Madhurya and Saukumarya.
Role of Gunas
Vamana emphasized that Riti depends on Gunas (Qualities). He classified 10 Gunas of Sound (Sabda) and 10 Gunas of Sense (Artha), making 20 in total.
E. Vakrokti Theory (Obliqueness)
Core Concept: Kuntaka argued that Vakrokti (Crooked/Oblique Speech) is the life of poetry (Vakrokti-kavya-jivitam). Poetry is “language that deviates from the ordinary mode of speaking” to produce a striking effect (Vaichitrya).
Six Levels of Vakrokti
F. Auchitya Theory (Propriety)
Core Concept: Kshemendra synthesized all previous schools. He declared that Auchitya (Propriety/Decorum) is the stable life of Rasa. No ornament, style, or figure is beautiful if it is inappropriate to the context.
III. Prominent Classical Theorists
| Theorist (Date) | Key Text(s) | Key Contribution(s) |
|---|---|---|
| Bharata Muni (2nd BCE – 2nd CE) |
Natyashastra | Progenitor of Rasa Theory; foundational text for Indian dramatic theory; discusses rasa, bhava, gunas, doshas, and alamkaras. |
| Panini (c. beg. of Christian era) |
Sabdanusasana, Astadhyayi | Laid the groundwork for Alankara sastra; established grammar (vyakarana) as the basis of all education and science. |
| Bhamaha (7th century) |
Kavyalankara | Introduced the Alamkar School; critiqued the sphota doctrine; defines Alankara in his magnum opus. |
| Dandin (7th century CE) |
Kavyadarshan, Dashakumaracharitam | Emphasized Gunas (merits/excellence of arrangement); attempted to integrate rasas with alankaras. Defined the ultimate objective of the epic as the realization of the four purusharthas. |
| Udbhata (9th century) |
Kavyalankarasamgraha | Discussed forty alamkaras; considered the first critic to mention the Shanta Rasa. |
| Anandavardhana (9th century CE) |
Dhvanyaloka | Established Dhvani (suggestion) as the soul of poetry; first explicitly developed a systematic literary criticism; stressed Aucitya (propriety) as the result of rasa-dhvani. |
| Abhinavagupta (9th – 11th century CE) |
Abinavabharati, Dhvanyaloka-lochana | Completed the emergence of the Rasadhvani School; major exponent of Kashmiri Shaivism. |
| Kuntaka (11th century) |
Vakroktijivita | Championed Vakrokti (indirection or obliqueness) as the life of poetry. |
| Kshemendra (c. 11th century) |
Aucitya-vicara-carca, Kavi-kanthavarana | Established Auchitya (decorum/propriety) as the life of poetry. |
| Mammata (c. 11th century) |
Kavya-prakasha | Key text in the development of poetics; listed 8 shabdalankar and 62 arthalankar. |
| Visvanatha (c. 14th century) |
Sahityadarpana | Consolidated earlier critical tenets, emphasizing lakshana (theme/content analysis), alankara, and riti (style). |
| Jagannatha Pandita (Mughal Court) |
Rasagangadhara | Defined poetry as: “vakyam rasatmakam kavyam” (any composition which gives tasteful pleasure is poetry). |
IV. Supplementary Concepts
Alankara Sastra
Critical science focused on figurative speech.
Guna
Poetic qualities or merits. Dandin gave them great importance. Broadly, there are three gunas: Ojas (vigour), Madhurya (sweetness), and Prasada (lucidity).
Dhvani-rasa
The specific combination of suggested meaning (dhvani) and aesthetic flavor (rasa), which Anandavardhana claimed was necessary for successful poetry.
Riti
Refers to style, discussed by Dandin and Vamana as a major component of poetry.
Anumana
Inference. Mahimabhatta subordinated dhwani to anumana, arguing that the soul of poetry (rasa) is inferred by the reader.
Metaphorical Summary
“Classical Indian literary criticism is like a sophisticated, ancient Indian kitchen (sastra), where the final dish (kavya) must achieve a perfect rasa (flavor/aesthetic experience) in the consumer (sahrdaya). The ingredients (literal words) must be spiced with alankaras (ornaments), but the true enjoyment comes from the suggested, subtle aroma, or dhvani, which permeates the entire experience and leads to a sense of ultimate liberation (moksha).”
