Classical Literary Criticism
Quick Revision Guide: Facts, Dates, & Key Terms
I. Historical Overview and Key Debates
| Period | Timeframe | Context & Key Critics | Key Debates & Critical Focus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Greek / Hellenistic | Began 4th Century BCE |
Context
Ends with Battle of Actium (30 BCE). Key Critics
Plato
Aristotle
|
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| Roman | Began after Battle of Actium (30 BCE) |
Context
Flourished under rulers like Augustus. Key Critics
Horace
Longinus
Quintilian
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|
2. Plato (c. 427–347 BCE)
AthenianMajor Dialogues
- Ion Poetic Inspiration
- The Republic Ideal State / Banishment
- Phaedrus Rhetoric & Soul
- Symposium Nature of Love
The Challenge to Poetry
Plato challenged the authority of poets using critical concepts such as imitation (Mimesis). He sought a cure for the ills of society in Philosophy, not Politics.
“Of all the philosophers, I have esteemed him most worthy of reverence… since of all the philosophers he is the most poetical.”
— Sir Philip Sidney
The Theory of Mimesis (Imitation)
Based on the Theory of Forms/Ideas (found in The Republic, Book X).
- Mimesis and Truth: Art (poetry) is imitation. Since material reality is already an imitation of Ideal Forms, poetry is an “imitation of an imitation,” making it twice removed from the truth or reality.
- The Poet’s Role: Poets appeal primarily to the emotions or passions, rather than to reason.
Types of Poetry
Why Banish the Poets? (The 3 Grounds)
Intellectual
Art is an illusion/lie. It offers no knowledge. It appeals to the inferior part of the soul, not Reason.
Moral & Social
Poetry undermines reason and promotes socially undesirable actions. He linked the Ideal of Beauty directly with Truth and Goodness, arguing that art must embody these virtues.
Emotional
“Feeds and waters the passions.” It encourages hysterical weeping/laughing instead of stoic control.
Allegory of the Cave (Republic, Book VII)
A metaphor for education and enlightenment. Prisoners in a cave see shadows on a wall and think they are real.
- Shadows: The world of appearances (Sensory world).
- Sun: The Truth / The Good (Philosophy).
View in ‘Ion’ (Divine Inspiration)
Socrates argues poets do not write by skill (Art) but by Divine Possession.
3. Aristotle (c. 384–322 BCE)
The LyceumProfile
- Born: Stagira, Macedonia.
- Role: Tutor to Alexander the Great.
- School: The Lyceum (Peripatetic).
- Works: Poetics (26 Chaps), Rhetoric (3 Books).
The Defense of Poetry
Aristotle refutes Plato’s theories, providing a framework for critical analysis.
Not mere imitation but re-creation. Poetry’s value is inherent, not dependent on its moral or political status.
The principle that a literary work must be a complete, well-structured whole.
Structure of The Poetics (26 Chapters)
Elements of Tragedy (As Defined in Poetics)
Definition of Tragedy (Chapter 6)
“Tragedy is an imitation of a serious action of a certain magnitude, using language with pleasurable accessories… through pity and fear effecting the proper Catharsis (purification/purgation) of these emotions.”
The 6 Constituent Parts (Ranked in order of importance)
- Plot (Mythos) – The “Soul” of Tragedy. Organization of incidents.
- Character (Ethos)
- Thought (Dianoia)
- Diction (Lexis)
- Melody (Melopoiia)
- Spectacle (Opsis) – Least important. Power resides in plot, not visual display.
Epic vs Tragedy
- Aristotle prefers Tragedy because it has all elements of Epic + Music & Spectacle.
- Unity of Action: Tragedy is more concentrated (one revolution of sun) vs Epic (no time limit).
Complex Plot Mechanics
A complex plot is superior to a simple plot.
The Ideal Tragic Hero
- Status: Highly renowned & prosperous.
- Character: Neither a saint nor a villain. An “intermediate” man.
- The Fall: Caused by Hamartia (Error in Judgment), not vice.
4. Horace (c. 65–8 BCE)
Roman / Augustan AgeNote: Roman criticism focused heavily on practical instruction and the moral instruction of the audience.
Profile & Context
- Work: Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry).
- Content: Practical guidance on composition, diction, and revision.
- Form: Verse Letter (Epistolary).
- Translator: Ben Jonson (1640).
The Structure of Ars Poetica
Divided into three well-marked divisions:
Core Principles
-
Utile et Dulce
“To teach and to please.” Poetry should transmit moral values and wisdom.
-
Ut Pictura Poesis
“As is painting, so is poetry.” (Visual nature of art).
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In Medias Res
Start “in the middle of things”. Do not start Ab Ovo (from the egg).
Advice to the Poet
The 9-Year Rule
“Keep your parchment for nine years.” Necessity of revision and careful writing.
Style & Balance
Stressed moderation and balance. Innate Talent (Nature) and Training (Art) are both necessary.
Rules for Drama
- The 5-Act Rule: A play must have exactly 5 acts.
- 3 Actor Rule: No more than 3 speaking characters on stage at once.
- The Chorus: Should be regarded as one of the actors (participate in action).
- Decorum: Consistency and appropriateness. A King must speak like a King; an old man like an old man.
- No On-Stage Violence: Events like Medea killing her children must be reported, not shown.
- Meter: Use iambic pentameter.
5. Longinus (1st Century CE)
Greek RhetoricianProfile & Context
- Work: Peri Hupsous (On the Sublime).
- Focus: Qualities that elevate literature and give it enduring value.
- Addressed To: His Roman friend, Terentianus.
- Key Title: Called the “First Romantic Critic” (by Scott-James) and “First Comparative Critic” (by Abercrombie).
Defining the Sublime
- The Effect: Produces Transport (Ekstasis) / Elevation or Grandeur.
- The Test: The effect is recognizable immediately and cannot be resisted. “Pleases all, and pleases always.”
- The Method: It strikes like a flashing thunderbolt.
The 5 Principal Sources of Sublimity
*Grandeur of thought and inspired passion are the two most influential sources.
- Grandeur of Thought The power of conceiving great thoughts (innate).
- Strong and Inspired Passion Vehement emotion.
- Appropriate Figures of Speech Use of figures.
- Noble Diction Choice of words and metaphors.
- Dignified Composition Harmonious arrangement.
“Art is perfect when it seems to be nature, and nature hits the mark when she contains art hidden within her.”
Hindrances (False Sublime)
- Tumidity (Bombast): Swelling language for small thoughts.
- Puerility: Childish, pedantic conceit.
- Frigidity: Coldness, lack of genuine passion.
- Parenthyrsus: Cheap, empty display of passion where none is needed.
Critical Stance
- Genius vs. Mediocrity: Longinus prefers a “Faulty Homer” (Genius with slips) to a “Faultless Apollonius” (Flawless mediocrity).
- Metaphor Rule: Unlike Aristotle (limit 2), Longinus says you can use any number of metaphors if passion demands it.
- Sappho: Quotes her “Ode to Jealousy” as a prime example of the Sublime.
6. Dante Alighieri
1265 – 1321 ItalianProfile & Works
- Major Work: De Vulgari Eloquentia (On Vernacular Eloquence).
- Date: Written ~1304 (unfinished). Published 1529 (Trissino translation).
- Legacy: “Naturalized” the Grand Style in Italian (just as Milton did for English).
- Goal: Plea for writing in the Vernacular (Native Tongue) over Latin.
The “Illustrious Vernacular”
Dante sought a native language that lacked none of the grandeur of Classical Latin. This “Illustrious Vernacular” must be:
Requirements for the Illustrious Vernacular
1. Vocabulary
Avoid “Rustic” words. Admit only “Urban” words.
- Combed: Smooth, elegant words.
- Glossy: Polished, sophisticated.
- Shaggy/Rumpled: Harsh, rustic sounds.
2. Construction
Use the “Highest Construction” (complex sentence structure) to mimic the gravity of Latin.
The style must be elevated, not colloquial.
3. Dignified Subjects
Only 3 themes are worthy of the Grand Style:
- Salus Safety / Arms / Patriotism
- Venus Love
- Virtus Virtue / God / Philosophy
“Visit the ancients and strip them of their wealth.” — Vida (Italian Critic, 1527)
